Maximum velocity from black powder guns

Maximum velocity from black powder guns

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What is the maximum velocity achievable from black powder guns? I have tried without success on the Internet to find if there is any physical limitation to the velocity of black powder guns, such as the rate of expansion of burning black powder, but have not found any discussion of the topic. Various listings online and in manuals show maximum listed velocities for black powder pistols about 1,000 fps and black powder rifles about 2,000 fps, although there are a few listings up to 2,200 fps for modern in-line rifles. I know about lead fouling with increased velocities, but are there any other constraints?

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Maximum velocity from black powder guns